Glucagon (1-29), bovine, human, porcine

Glucagon is a 29 amino acid peptide that is secreted from pancreatic α-cells in response to low levels of blood glucose^[2]. The best-described effect of glucagon is its action on the liver, where it increases blood glucose through stimulation of gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis ^[1]. The non-glycemic effects of glucagon include the regulation of food intake and satiety, lipid homeostasis, insulin secretion and energy expenditure^[3].

Glucagon, at concentrations of 0.3 and 3 uM, inhibited the chemotactic response of neutrophils towards all chemoattractants tested^[4]. Glucagon may promote insulin secretion in MIN6 cells by reducing the production of cGMP in MIN6 cells and increasing the proliferative activity of MIN6 islet β cell line^[8]. Thyroxine and glucagon can significantly reduce the mRNA transcription and protein expression levels of HSPs under high temperature conditions^[9].

While using the non-invasive barometric plethysmography,glucagon (1 µg/kg, i.n.) significantly inhibited methacholine-induced bronchospasm in mice^[5]. The effects of intraperitoneal glucagon injections on intake of a palatable milk diet were tested in rats maintained with ad lib access to pelleted diet. Injections of 25--800 micrograms/kg glucagon administered at meal onset inhibited meal size by 17--36%, but did not affect the normal postprandial behavioral satiety sequence or elicit any behavioral signs of toxicity^[6]. Hepatic portal infusion of 13.6 micrograms glucagon/meal reduced the size of spontaneous meals both early and late in the dark in neurally intact rats, but not in hepatic-vagotomized rats^[7].

References:
[1]. Jiang G, Zhang BB. Glucagon and regulation of glucose metabolism. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2003 Apr;284(4):E671-8. doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.00492.2002. PMID: 12626323.
[2]. Campbell JE, Drucker DJ. Islet α cells and glucagon--critical regulators of energy homeostasis. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2015 Jun;11(6):329-38. doi: 10.1038/nrendo.2015.51. Epub 2015 Apr 7. PMID: 25850661.
[3]. Kleinert M, Sachs S,et,al. Glucagon Regulation of Energy Expenditure. Int J Mol Sci. 2019 Oct 30;20(21):5407. doi: 10.3390/ijms20215407. PMID: 31671603; PMCID: PMC6862306.
[4]. Insuela DBR, Ferrero MR, et,al. Glucagon Reduces Neutrophil Migration and Increases Susceptibility to Sepsis in Diabetic Mice. Front Immunol. 2021 Jul 6;12:633540. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.633540. PMID: 34295325; PMCID: PMC8290340.
[5]. Insuela DB, Daleprane JB, et,al. Glucagon induces airway smooth muscle relaxation by nitric oxide and prostaglandin E?. J Endocrinol. 2015 Jun;225(3):205-17. doi: 10.1530/JOE-14-0648. PMID: 26021821.
[6]. Geary N, Smith GP. Pancreatic glucagon and postprandial satiety in the rat. Physiol Behav. 1982 Feb;28(2):313-22. doi: 10.1016/0031-9384(82)90081-6. PMID: 7079345.
[7]. Geary N, Le Sauter J, et,al. Glucagon acts in the liver to control spontaneous meal size in rats. Am J Physiol. 1993 Jan;264(1 Pt 2):R116-22. doi: 10.1152/ajpregu.1993.264.1.R116. PMID: 8430871.
[8].Wu Y Y. The effect of glucagon on insulin secretion in MIN6 cells and the effect of cGMP signaling pathway.2014. MA thesis, Shihezi University.
[9]. Cui Ruilian, et al." Effects of thyroxine and glucagon on heat shock protein expression in Bovine mammary epithelial cells cultured at high temperature in vitro." Chinese Journal of Agriculture 25.06(2010):173-177.

胰高血糖素是一种由 29 个氨基酸组成的肽，由胰腺 α-细胞分泌，以响应低血糖水平^[2]。胰高血糖素最好的作用是它对肝脏的作用，它通过刺激糖异生和糖原分解来增加血糖^[1]。胰高血糖素的非血糖作用包括调节食物摄入和饱腹感、脂质稳态、胰岛素分泌和能量消耗^[3]。

胰高血糖素，浓度为 0.3 和 3 uM，抑制中性粒细胞对所有测试的趋化因子的趋化反应^[4]。胰高血糖素可能通过减少MIN6细胞中cGMP的产生和增加MIN6胰岛的增殖活性来促进MIN6细胞的胰岛素分泌 β细胞系^[8]。甲状腺素和胰高血糖素可显着降低高温条件下HSPs的mRNA转录和蛋白表达水平^[9]。

在使用无创气压体积描记法时，胰高血糖素（1 &#181 ;g/kg, i.n.) 显着抑制乙酰甲胆碱诱导的小鼠支气管痉挛^[5]。腹膜内注射胰高血糖素对可口牛奶饮食摄入量的影响在大鼠中进行了测试，大鼠可以随意食用颗粒饮食。在进餐开始时注射 25--800 微克/千克胰高血糖素可抑制进餐量 17--36%，但不影响正常的餐后饱腹行为序列或引起任何毒性行为迹象^{[6]。肝门静脉输注 13.6 微克胰高血糖素/餐可减少神经完整大鼠在黑暗中早期和晚期自发进食的量，但对肝迷走神经切断大鼠没有影响[7]。}